The Reasons for Kosher

An organically raised pigBefore we begin our analysis of biblical kosher laws, it would be appropriate to consider what purpose these laws serve and why God commanded them.

Many people come to the conclusion that kosher laws were put in place in order to provide physical health benefits. Certain animals may be prone to disease or spoiling, they may be likely to contain toxic substances, or the human digestive system may not be capable of processing them. Although this is a thoughtful and reasonable hypothesis, the Bible does not offer this as rationale for the dietary laws. In reality, many foods that meet the Bible's kosher standards are unhealthy. For example, certain brands of snack cakes and potato chips are fully kosher. Likewise, many highly nutritious dishes do not meet biblical dietary requirements. For example, horse milk has been touted as a healthy alternative to cow milk.1 Although the science of healthy eating constantly changes, biblical kosher law stays the same. There is not a direct relationship between kosher laws and nutrition.

This is also true for foods that are organically grown and raised. A pig or a cow raised on an organic farm is not any more or less kosher than one raised in an industrial environment, because the Bible does not make a distinction between what is organic and what is not. The distinction did not exist at the time the Bible was written. In certain circumstances, organic foods may be less likely to meet biblical kosher standards. For example, if an organic pesticide was less effective than a conventional one, it could result in a higher amount of bug-infested produce.

One who views kosher as synonymous with healthful might be tempted to disregard the biblical commandments in favor of what scientific studies determine to be the best diet. But this would be a mistake. Biblical scholar Dr. Nathan MacDonald recently published a book entitled What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times, in which he makes the case that the diet of the ancient Israelites was not nutritious. In a BBC article, he is quoted as saying:

Though many people have thought otherwise, the evidence is that the diet in biblical times was not very healthy. Except for times of famine and food shortage—which were relatively frequent—it provided the necessary calories, but was lacking in certain key vitamins and minerals … The bible never purports to provide dietary advice. Even the biblical food laws serve very different purposes than modern nutritional advice.2

There are only a few justifications explicitly given in the Torah for the kosher laws: ritual purity, holiness, and sonship.

For I am the LORD your God. Consecrate yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy. You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming thing that crawls on the ground. For I am the LORD who brought you up out of the land of Egypt to be your God. You shall therefore be holy, for I am holy. This is the law about beast and bird and every living creature that moves through the waters and every creature that swarms on the ground, to make a distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten. (Leviticus 11:44–47)

You are the sons of the LORD your God. You shall not cut yourselves or make any baldness on your foreheads for the dead. For you are a people holy to the LORD your God, and the LORD has chosen you to be a people for his treasured possession, out of all the peoples who are on the face of the earth. You shall not eat any abomination. (Deuteronomy 14:1–4, emphasis added)

While it is beyond the scope of this study to draw out the implications of each of these justifications, it is clear that none of them relate to health. To the contrary, they seem to be related to our spiritual condition and our relationship with God.

When our master Yeshua met the Gadarene demoniacs (Matthew 8:28–34), why is it that the demons begged to be cast into pigs? We can only speculate, but it may very well be the case that there is something spiritually unhealthy about the animal, something that cannot possibly be known or detected by science.

1. 1. Chapman, Clare. “Health-conscious turn to horse milk.” The Age 11/27/2004. http://www.theage.com.au/news/Science/Healthconscious-turn-to-horse-milk...
2. 2. "Biblical Diet 'not very healthy'" BBC News 01/13/2009 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/7826163.stm

Clean and Unclean Animals

Humpback Whale: subject to the same criteria as fishThis brings us to a clear starting point for biblical dietary laws: the list of clean and unclean animals. This list is given in two places in the Torah: Leviticus chapter 11 and Deuteronomy chapter 14.

The Torah groups animals into the following categories:

• large, four-footed land animals
• water animals
• flying animals
• teeming creatures that fly or crawl.

You may notice that the Bible classifies animals in a different manner from modern biology. For example, whales fit into the same category as fish, while bats fit together with birds. Biblical taxonomy seems to place more focus on the domain in which the creature lives, rather than its physical characteristics.

With most classifications, the Torah lists physical traits that identify clean animals, as well as offering examples of some that are clean and unclean. With birds, the Torah does not indicate any physical characteristics, but only presents a list.

Parts of the Animal

Roast Ox: a whole ox roasting on a spit (source)In order to keep biblically kosher, one must be mindful not only of the species of animal, but also the parts of the animal to be eaten. The first mention of a prohibited part of an animal occurs in Genesis 32:32. The chapter describes how the patriarch Jacob wrestled with a mysterious stranger until daybreak, until his opponent touched his hip, putting it out of joint. After that, the Torah explains, "Therefore to this day the people of Israel do not eat the sinew of the thigh that is on the hip socket, because he touched the socket of Jacob's hip on the sinew of the thigh." The Hebrew term for the "sinew of the thigh" is gid hanasheh (גיד הנשה).

While this verse is not formulated as a command, the significance of this dietary practice is profound. Observance of this practice is an identification with the struggle of Jacob, his overcoming, his blessing, and his new identity as Israel. Ignoring this custom would mean distancing oneself from each of these things, in which case eating kosher has little meaning.

Jewish tradition has retained the identity of the gid hanasheh, known today as the sciatic nerve. Completely removing this piece is a tedious surgical procedure. Nonetheless, there are some highly skilled individuals who are capable of doing so.

The Torah also indicates that the fat of certain animals is not to be eaten:

It shall be a statute forever throughout your generations, in all your dwelling places, that you eat neither fat nor blood. (Leviticus 3:17)

Speak to the people of Israel, saying, You shall eat no fat, of ox or sheep or goat. The fat of an animal that dies of itself and the fat of one that is torn by beasts may be put to any other use, but on no account shall you eat it. For every person who eats of the fat of an animal [Hebrew: behemah] of which a food offering may be made to the LORD shall be cut off from his people. (Leviticus 7:23–25)

It should be noted that the word translated "ox" (shor, שור) actually has a much broader semantic range, including any bovine species, such as cows. (The term behemah is a more narrow term than its translation "animal," specifically referring to large land animals, meaning that other animals such as birds are not in view of this law.)

This would pose a problem for a literalist: how can one avoid eating any fat from an animal? All meat contains some amount of fat. At first glance, this law would preclude the possibility of eating any meat whatsoever.

Jewish interpretation sees the term for fat (chelev, חלב) in the context of the sacrificial laws, referring to fat portions and layers in the animal, rather than fat that is marbled into the meat. If meat is to be kosher, these fat portions must be selected out and removed.

As we will discuss in the next chapter, blood is also strictly forbidden. Some Jewish communities remove the larger blood vessels, since they will contain blood.1

Much of the forbidden fat of an animal is found in the hindquarters. The blood vessels in the hindquarters are particularly difficult to remove. The sciatic nerve is also contained in the hindquarters. Considering all of these factors, many Jewish communities find that it is more cost-effective to sell the hindquarters to a non-kosher butcher. However, the meat contained in the hindquarters is not inherently non-kosher if it is properly processed by someone with the skill and knowledge to do so.

The forbidden portions of animals pose an equal challenge to biblical kosher as clean and unclean species. If they do not come from a kosher slaughterhouse, ground beef, sausages, and hot dogs are guaranteed to contain these forbidden portions. To put it bluntly, typical ground meats sold at the local grocery store are not biblically kosher. Many meat cuts—especially those from the hindquarters such as tenderloin, T-bone, and filet mignon, as well as liver—are likely to contain forbidden parts of the animal as well. This is true regardless of whether or not the meat is labeled "organic," "natural," or "lean."

This means that while it is a worthwhile step forward to substitute beef sausage instead of pork pepperoni on a pizza, it still does not rise to the level of the Bible's kosher standard.

1. 1. What's the Truth about...Nikkur Achoraim? OUKosher.org. http://www.oukosher.org/index.php/articles/single_print/6550

Abstaining from Blood

Irish breakfast: a traditional meal consisting of eggs, bacon, and blood sausageThe Torah prohibits the consumption of blood. It is surprising how many verses are dedicated to this prohibition. It is also remarkable how severely the Scriptures speak about the subject. It is called "a statute forever throughout your generations, in all your dwelling places" (Leviticus 3:17). One who eats blood is "cut off from his people," and God "sets his face against that person" (Leviticus 7:27, 17:10, 14). We must not eat it, so that “all may go well with you and with your children after you” (Deuteronomy 12:24).

The prohibition is not simply against drinking blood. The Torah indicates that animals that are slaughtered must be properly bled before the meat is eaten. The Scriptures tell us, "You shall not eat any flesh with the blood in it" (Leviticus 19:26). This law was even given to Noah, centuries earlier (Genesis 9:4). Instead, it repeatedly states that we should "pour it out on the earth like water," (Leviticus 17:13; Deuteronomy 12:16, 24, 15:23).

The Torah speaks of this in emphatic terms:

Only be sure [literally, "strong"] that you do not eat the blood, for the blood is the life, and you shall not eat the life with the flesh. (Deuteronomy 12:23)

How is one to be "strong" not to eat the blood with the flesh? At the very least this suggests that removing the blood from the slaughtered animal requires an intentional, concerted effort.

The Scriptures tell us the story of Saul's men, after striking down the Philistines:

They struck down the Philistines that day from Michmash to Aijalon. And the people were very faint. The people pounced on the spoil and took sheep and oxen and calves and slaughtered them on the ground. And the people ate them with the blood. Then they told Saul, "Behold, the people are sinning against the LORD by eating with the blood." And he said, "You have dealt treacherously; roll a great stone to me here." And Saul said, "Disperse yourselves among the people and say to them, 'Let every man bring his ox or his sheep and slaughter them here and eat, and do not sin against the LORD by eating with the blood.'" So every one of the people brought his ox with him that night and they slaughtered them there. (1 Samuel 14:31–34)

These men were not drinking the blood as a beverage. They were not pagans; they were just being careless, slaughtering the animals in an improper way ("on the ground") that did not allow the blood to drain.

The idea that there is a certain way that animals must be slaughtered can be found in the Torah:

If the place that the LORD your God will choose to put his name there is too far from you, then you may kill [Hebrew: zavach] any of your herd or your flock, which the LORD has given you, as I have commanded you, and you may eat within your towns whenever you desire. (Deuteronomy 12:21)

"Kill" is an imprecise choice of words in this translation. The Hebrew term zavach (זבח) specifically means "slaughter," and it is frequently used in regards to sacrifices. How are we to slaughter an animal "as I have commanded you"? This suggests that a proper method of slaughter was demonstrated to the ancient Israelites.

There are explicit parameters around the method of the animal's death. The Torah states:

"You shall be consecrated to me. Therefore you shall not eat any flesh that is torn by beasts in the field; you shall throw it to the dogs." (Exodus 22:31)

"You shall not eat anything that has died naturally." (Deuteronomy 14:21)

The translation of Deuteronomy 14:21 is somewhat loose. Literally, the text reads, "You shall not eat any carcass." Since we cannot eat a live animal, any animal we eat will be a carcass at some point. For this reason, the translators felt the necessity of providing further interpretation. However, it is important to note that it is irrelevant whether the animal died of natural or unnatural causes. Thus, this verse instructs that someone must have killed the animal in an acceptable way, whatever that is. If an animal did not die in the proper manner, then the animal is not kosher, regardless of whether or not the blood has been drained from the carcass.

In conjunction with this list, we should also consider the four apostolic injunctions upon Gentiles, which includes the instruction to abstain from "what has been strangled" (Acts 15:20, 29, 21:25).

While the term "strangle" in English specifically denotes death by constraint around the neck or windpipe, the Greek term (pniktos, πνικτός) has a broader definition which includes choking, suffocation, and asphyxiation, not merely strangling. For example, the Gospel of Mark uses a form of this word to describe the demon-possessed pigs that were "drowned" in the sea (Mark 5:13).

The term pniktos is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew term for "choke" (chanak, חנק). This Hebrew word is a technical term in traditional kosher law. The Mishnah (Chullin 1.2) explains that dull blades or cutting instruments cannot be used in kosher slaughter, since the blood will then enter the animal's windpipe, thus "choking" the animal. Rather than dying of blood loss (as seems to be the Torah's intention) the animal dies of asphyxiation, rendering it "strangled."

Deer hunting: animals frequently expire long before the blood is drained (source)Although the Torah does not explicitly describe the proper method of slaughter, traditional kosher slaughter is done in such a way that the major blood vessels in the neck are cut with a sharp knife, without damaging the windpipe. That way, the animal's death is almost painless, and the heart continues to pump the blood out of the body until the animal falls asleep.

One cannot prove purely from biblical text that this is the only proper method of slaughter. Nonetheless, at the very least we can see that the method of death and the method of slaughter are significant in terms of biblical kosher law. We would do well to investigate whether or not other killing and butchering methods meet this standard.

When animals are slaughtered according to USDA regulations, they are first stunned (rendered unconscious), and only then is the animal cut and bled. The USDA highly discourages bleeding without stunning, as is required by traditional kosher law. Stunning is performed in any of the following ways: a) a mechanical blow to the brain, b) electrical shock, or c) gassing with either carbon dioxide or a combination of inert gases. The electrical shock method is sometimes performed in a way that causes cardiac arrest.1

Animals that are hunted for food are subject to more issues. These animals are frequently in a stressed condition at the time of death. Their muscles clench and their bodies are surging with adrenalin, which may inhibit the draining of blood. Their death may be slow and painful, and there may be considerable time between killing and bleeding the animal.

We must also consider the differences in perspective regarding death between biblical law, civil law, and modern science. While civil law and modern science may define death as a cessation of brain activity or cardiac arrest, the Bible seems to draw a connection between life and breathing. That is to say, a biblical definition of death appears to be when breathing ceases.2 Thus, there may be a point at which the USDA considers the animal to be alive, although biblically the animal may already be dead.

Do the typical USDA method of slaying animals meet the biblical standard? The Jewish community has concluded decisively that it does not.

1. 1. USDA, Guidelines for the Slaughter of Animals. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/animals/oie/downloads/tahc-guide...
2. 2. See Genesis 1:30, 2:7, 6:17, 7:15, 22, 25:8, 17, 35:29, 49:33; Job 12:10, 14:10; Mark 15:37, 39; Luke 23:46; Acts 5:5, 10, 12:23.

Purging Vessels

Mycenaean cupAnother aspect of kosher law can be found in the book of Numbers. After the war of vengeance against the Midianites, the Israelite soldiers were not allowed to enter the Israelite camp until they went through a process of purification. The spoils they carried home from the war also had to be cleansed before they could be brought into the Israelite camp.

Then Eleazar the priest said to the men in the army who had gone to battle: "This is the statute of the law that the LORD has commanded Moses: only the gold, the silver, the bronze, the iron, the tin, and the lead, everything that can stand the fire, you shall pass through the fire, and it shall be clean. Nevertheless, it shall also be purified with the water for impurity. And whatever cannot stand the fire, you shall pass through the water."(Numbers 31:21–23)

One aspect of this translation is misleading. Rather than "everything that can stand the fire," a more literal translation would be "everything that goes into the fire." Likewise, "whatever cannot stand the fire" is more literally rendered, "everything that does not go in the fire."

The reason this is significant is that the translation, as it stands, seems to imply that everything ideally should be purified in a fire, but if the fire would damage it, ritual washing is good enough. However, this is not consistent with ritual purity laws elsewhere, in which case if the object cannot be properly purified, it is simply destroyed.1 However, if we simply read the passage literally, it seems to speak of objects that are used in fire (such as pots and pans) as opposed to those that are not. That is to say, if the object was contaminated in a fire, then it must also be cleansed in a fire. If the object had not been contaminated in a fire, a cleansing with fire is not necessary. This reading brings clarity and consistency to the laws revealed in this passage.

Levitical purity?

One might claim that this commandment refers only to ritual purity that is separate from kosher law and only practical in the context of Temple ritual. However, we can see that this is not the case, since "everything that goes into the fire" must first be cleansed in fire, making it "clean," and then also "purified" in water. If a fire-purged vessel is somehow "clean" and yet also "impure," then we must be speaking of two separate concepts. There is nowhere else in the Torah where ritual purity is effected by passing though fire.

If the purity achieved here is strictly Tabernacle-related, then that would indicate that pots and bowls made of tin and lead went from the Midianite dinner table to the Israelite priesthood. This makes little sense. Even the gold and silver vessels would probably have been melted down and re-formed into the specialized dishes needed for Levitical purposes.

Additionally, notice that this command of purification is directed to "the men in the army who had gone to battle" (Numbers 31:21). This description automatically excludes all priests and Levites, since they don't go out to battle.2 If these dishes are only being purified because they are to be devoted to sacred use, then what is the purpose of giving this commandment to soldiers? The plain reading of the text suggests that these dishes were among the plunder that was divided "into two parts between the warriors who went out to battle and all the congregation" (Numbers 31:27).

Jewish tradition explains the "passing through fire" as communicating that the flavors and particles of non-kosher food are transmitted through heat, and they can only be purged through the same level of heat. While you may or may not agree with this interpretation, it is borne out by modern knowledge.

Consider, for example, a cast iron skillet. To season the skillet in a conventional manner, one might coat the pan with lard or bacon grease, and then bake the pan in an oven. The only way to remove the seasoning would be with intense heat.

A similar effect occurs in the inside of an oven. Wired Magazine recently published an article explaining why New York pizza is so much better than pizza in San Francisco. The answer was explained by David Tisi, whom Wired describes as "a food-development consultant who has spent much of his career studying pizza."

"As you cook, some ingredients vaporize, and these volatilized particles can attach themselves to the walls of the baking cavity," Tisi says. "The next time you use the oven, these bits get caught up in the convection currents and deposited on the food, which adds flavor." Over time, he says, more particles join the mix and mingle with the savory soot from burned wood or coal — the only fuels worth using — to create a flavor that you can't grow in a garden: gestalt, if you will.3

Another illustration of the contamination of vessels can be seen among individuals with severe and sensitive allergies. Many people with allergies have severe reactions after eating foods if they were prepared on the same equipment that was used with allergens, even if the equipment is thoroughly cleaned.

Grilled shrimp: (source)Imagine if you were fatally allergic to pork, and the slightest amount would threaten your life. If this were the case, would you be comfortable eating fish that was seared on a grill in an Americana restaurant, served on a stoneware plate? Non-kosher food can be seen to affect us in a similar way, only it is detrimental to our souls rather than our bodies.

Even if the end goal of the cleansing in fire in this passage is entirely ritual, it makes sense that it would only be possible to cleanse something ritually after it has been completely cleansed hygienically. In other words, immersing a pan in water to remove ritual impurity is only possible after all traces of non-kosher food have been removed. A vessel does not qualify for ritual purification if it still contains contaminating substances (such as unclean species and pagan sacrifices). Immersing it would be as ineffective as taking a ritual bath while holding onto a dead rat. That means that a hygienic cleansing is the prerequisite and first stage of a ritual cleansing process.

In the world today, without a Temple, priesthood, or sacrifices, some people believe that ritual purity has absolutely no practical bearing on life. That belief is not shared by traditional Judaism.

While it is not explicit in the text, traditional Judaism sees the second purification—the washing in water—as related not to the holiness of the Tabernacle, but of the entire Israelite nation. The vessels go through a re-dedication ceremony. They were originally formed by Midianites for the purpose of containing food offered to idols and celebrating pagan feasts. But now, as they enter Jewish homes they are devoted to a new, holier purpose: the service of the one true God. It is as if the dishes themselves are "baptized" and undergo a religious conversion. This idea is supported by the special role of the Jewish people as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (Exodus 19:6).

Nonetheless, if the ritual purity of these vessels was not an issue, then that would only account for the second purification in water, since the first purification in fire is hygienic. For the purposes of dietary law alone, there is still a need to cleanse the vessel of all traces of contaminants, and the process that the Torah prescribes for this is "passing through a fire."

Perhaps you are not convinced that this is the original intent of Numbers 31:21–23. That is understandable, since the passage is short on details. Nonetheless, a law of the Torah is revealed here; the passage has to have some meaning. If we dismiss the traditional explanation, then it becomes our duty to propose another, which must also account for the double cleansing of verse 23. The traditional Jewish explanation is, at the very least, both biblical and reasonable.

"Kashering" to Remove Holiness

There is another text that we may bring to bear on the issue of cleansing vessels. This passage is different, however, because instead of imparting holiness to vessels, the task is to remove it.

The LORD spoke to Moses, saying, "Speak to Aaron and his sons, saying, This is the law of the sin offering. In the place where the burnt offering is killed shall the sin offering be killed before the LORD; it is most holy. The priest who offers it for sin shall eat it. In a holy place it shall be eaten, in the court of the tent of meeting. Whatever touches its flesh shall be holy, and when any of its blood is splashed on a garment, you shall wash that on which it was splashed in a holy place. And the earthenware vessel in which it is boiled shall be broken. But if it is boiled in a bronze vessel, that shall be scoured and rinsed in water. Every male among the priests may eat of it; it is most holy. But no sin offering shall be eaten from which any blood is brought into the tent of meeting to make atonement in the Holy Place; it shall be burned up with fire." (Leviticus 6:24-30)

This passage is puzzling. Why must the vessel in which the offering was boiled be either cleansed or destroyed?

One explanation is that holy or consecrated foods can only be eaten by certain individuals, in a state of ritual purity, under specific circumstances (which vary). Now imagine that someone cooked sacrificial meat in an earthenware pot. The priest is very careful to prepare himself ritually before partaking of this meat. The following day, however, the priest sits down to enjoy a non-sanctified meal of boiled vegetables. But since he used the same earthenware pot that he had used for the sacrificial meat, the flavor of the holy food becomes infused into the vegetables. This means that he would taste the flavor of the sacrifice while in a normal (non-sanctified) ritual state. The Torah seeks to prevent this by requiring that the dishes in which the meat was cooked be purged of the flavor of the holy meat. In the case of earthenware, this is not possible, so the dish must be broken to prevent the dish from being used again. The Sages derive from this that earthenware in which non-kosher foods have been cooked cannot be made kosher again.

1. 1. Leviticus 11:33, for example.
2. 2. See Numbers 1:20–54.
3. 3. Wired Magazine 16.05, "Why New York City's Iconic Pizza Is So Tough to Replicate" http://www.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/magazine/16-05/ps_pizzasci

Meat and Dairy

Cheeseburger: a classic example of meat and dairy (source)Three times in the Torah, the instruction is repeated, "You shall not boil a young goat in its mother's milk" (Exodus 23:19, 34:26; Deuteronomy 14:21). This commandment is carried over into traditional Jewish practice as a complete separation of all meat and dairy products.

This issue is often taken to exemplify the difference between "biblical" and "rabbinic" kosher. The difference between the English translation of the verse and normative kosher law is so stark that many people perceive it as a classic example of a non-biblical rabbinic ruling.

It is no secret that rabbinical rulings exist that go beyond mere interpretation of the Torah. Jewish scholars refer to these rulings as derabbanan (דרבנן), which means "of our rabbis," in contrast with the laws that are de'oraita (דאורייתא), meaning "of the Torah." The difference between these two types of laws is an important distinction in Judaism.

Rabbinic rulings are set in place for various reasons, the most common being in order to prevent the likely transgression of a biblical law. Often those reasons are misunderstood, and sometimes they might seem like a stretch to us, but regardless, the explanation for these rulings can be found. (Such is not the case in biblical law, on the other hand. More often than not, the Scriptures are silent in regards to the meaning and purpose they were given, leaving us only to ponder and speculate.)

One might think that the sages instituted an additional law separating meat and dairy as just such a buffer. It would seem that the intention of separating the two was to prevent a scenario in which a young goat might actually be boiled in the milk of its mother. However, the sages do not see the separation of meat and dairy as an additional "fence" at all. Rather, this law is considered "biblical" in its very essence. The sages seem to have felt that the separation of meat and dairy arises from the text itself. (In fact, they do not seem to even know for certain why God prohibited the combination.)

Somehow, the elders and teachers in Israel thousands of years ago read the same verses in Hebrew and concluded that God had instructed us not to serve meat and dairy together. How is that possible?

So far we have found that although the English translation is often helpful, it also quite often leads us off course. We have run across Hebrew words translated into English words with a much broader meaning,1 as well as those translated into English words with a narrower meaning.2 We have found words that are roughly equivalent but do not match a modern scientific definition.3 There have been cases where the translators felt a need to supply words that were missing,4 as well as cases where they interpreted a passage for us, although their interpretation may not have been correct.5 We have even found that a literal, non-interpretive translation can lead us astray when it is not taken in its proper context.6 This goes to show that to understand the Bible, we must read it in its original language and familiarize ourselves with the culture and interpretation that surrounds it.

If we examine this commandment in light of the original language and culture, we will at least make some steps in bridging the gap between the historic Jewish interpretation and the modern English translation we have been given.

1. 1. Such as behemah (a large land animal such as a cow) being translated as "animal."
2. 2. Such as sheretz (teeming creatures) being translated as "insects."
3. 3. Such as ohf (birds), which includes the bat.
4. 4. Such as "naturally" in Deuteronomy 14:21.
5. 5. Such as "everything that can stand the fire" in Numbers 31:22.
6. 6. Such as "You shall eat no fat" in Leviticus 7:23.

Straining at Gnats

Thrips: commonly found in vegetables (source)In no uncertain terms, bugs are not biblically kosher (locusts and the like excluded). Western cultures are not accustomed to eating bugs, but many other cultures of the world include different kinds of insects in their diet.

Although we do not typically eat insects knowingly or willingly, bugs make their way into the food we eat. If we do not examine fruits and vegetables carefully, we might very well eat them.

"Straining at gnats" has become a figure of speech for "being overly focused on a minor detail." It comes, of course, from what the Master said:

Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! For you tithe mint and dill and cumin, and have neglected the weightier matters of the law: justice and mercy and faithfulness. These you ought to have done, without neglecting the others. You blind guides, straining out a gnat and swallowing a camel! (Matthew 23:23–24)

From the complete context we learn that our Master was not criticizing them for being scrupulous. The fact that they performed minor commandments was not the problem. Rather, their error was their failure to observe the weightier ones. Both gnats and camels are prohibited, or else the Torah would not have said so, and our Master’s figure of speech would have no meaning. The correct thing to do is to avoid the camels "without neglecting" straining the gnats. It is not noble to avoid the camels while ignoring the gnats. Remember, our master Yeshua also said,

Therefore whoever relaxes one of the least of these commandments and teaches others to do the same will be called least in the kingdom of heaven, but whoever does them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. (Matthew 5:19)

It should not be surprising that bugs end up in vegetables. Vegetables grow in the ground. Bugs live in the ground and eat vegetables. But what is surprising is the number of bugs that can be found in vegetables, if you’re looking for them, and how sneaky they can be.

Of course, there has to be a limit on what is prohibited. If every microorganism were off-limits, we couldn't eat anything. Jewish law specifies that bugs are prohibited if they can be seen with the naked eye by the average healthy person. Nonetheless, the difficulty is not in seeing them, but finding them. They hide in cracks and crevasses, blend in with the foliage, and burrow inside the produce. They are often smaller than millimeter in length, and sometimes look like splinters or flecks.

Here are some examples of the most common bugs found in fresh produce:

Insect	Commonly Found In
Thrips	artichokes, arugula, asparagus, blackberries, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, endives, herbs, lettuce, onions, raspberries, scallions, spinach, strawberries
Aphids	artichokes, broccoli, herbs, lettuce, strawberries
Worms	arugula, beans, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, celery, dates, eggplant, figs, grains, greens (collard, kale, turnip), mushrooms, radishes, rutabaga, spinach, turnips
Mites	blackberries, raspberries, strawberries

Orthodox Judaism has developed a system of checking each type of produce for bugs, not so much as a matter of halachah or custom, but from a purely practical perspective. They have learned what types of bugs hide in different food items and how to find and eliminate them. The specific processes of bug-checking are too involved to cover in this document. If you wish to keep biblical kosher, it would be wise to research bug-checking tips from Orthodox Jewish sources. Much information can be found online from reputable organizations such as the Orthodox Union and Star-K.

Hidden Ingredients

Cochineal: insects used for food coloring (source)In today's world, food production has become extremely complex. Just one century ago, it would have been likely that most of the ingredients in the food you ate would have been produced by people you knew personally. Today, in one packaged product, dozens of ingredients appear that might have originated literally across the planet. In order for foods to endure packaging, shipping, and storage, chemicals and additives have to be added to the food such as emulsifiers and preservatives. Factories add colors and flavors to the food to increase its taste and visual appeal. Some additives are used to streamline the production process or decrease costs. To some extent, the U.S. government requires that ingredients be listed, but in many cases, ingredients may be omitted from the list. Others are hidden behind deceptively worded ingredient names or general categories such as "natural flavors."

The list of problematic ingredients in food is incredibly long and cannot be reproduced here, but here is a sample of a few issues:

• Carmine (also called cochineal) is a red food color derived from insects, found in many items, including fruit juices, baked goods, spices, and meat.
• Gelatin, a well-known gelling agent, comes from animal hides, bones, or hooves, and is found in items such as yogurt, marshmallows, jams, margarine, and ice cream.
• Anti-caking agents are often made from animal fats, and they are found in spice powders and blends.
• Glycerides are often made from animal fats, and they are found in sauces, dressings and ice creams.
• Many natural flavorings are derived from animal products such as extracts from beaver, cat, or deer glands.
• Aside from ingredients in the food, in many cases it is necessary to use food-grade oils for lubrication of machinery in food-processing plants. Food grade oil is necessary specifically because the oils may come in contact with the food. Many of these food grade oils come from animals. For example, sperm [whale] oil is used on bakery pans.1

The world of food production has changed dramatically. It is now impossible to keep a biblical kosher standard simply by reading labels. There are simply too many factors involved in food production.

Cheese

Cheesy Snack Foods: could very well contain pork enzymesCheese is another great example of a product that would seem perfectly kosher, but could very well pose a problem. Of course, added flavors, colors, anti-caking agents, preservatives, and additives that modify the texture of the cheese raise concerns. However, an essential ingredient in cheese is the complex of enzymes known as rennet, which is added in order to coagulate the milk. Rennet is traditionally derived from the stomach lining of calves, but pig enzymes can also be used. One online source quotes Ellen Schwarzbach, a representative from Kraft General Foods, Inc., as saying:

The most common method of coagulating milk is by the use of an enzyme preparation, rennet, which traditionally was made from the stomachs of veal calves. Since the consumption of calves for veal has not kept pace with the demand for rennet in the preparation of cheese, a distinct shortage of this enzyme has developed. Consequently, a few years ago it became a common practice to mix the rennet extract from calves' stomachs with a pepsin enzyme derived primarily from the stomachs of swine. These enzymes convert the fluid milk into a semi-solid mass as one of the steps in the manufacture of cheese. This mixture of calf rennet and pepsin extract is quite commonly and widely used within the United States.2

(Note, however, that the representative goes on to say that certain cheeses produced by Kraft use microbial enzymes, rather than animal rennet.)

Cheese is also a common ingredient and flavoring in other foods. Frito-Lay, a major snack food manufacturer, indicates on their web site:

Pork enzymes may be used in the milk that makes the real cheese for some of our cheese seasonings.3

Thankfully, the Frito-Lay web site provides a list of products that do not contain pork enzymes, and it also provides lists of their kosher-certified products, which also would not contain any pork products.

It is becoming more common to use microbial sources for the rennet, which could alleviate some concerns. But Jewish law does not prohibit the use of animal rennet, as long as it is derived from a kosher animal that is properly slaughtered.4

Kosher Certification

The best way, then, to ensure that the food that one eats is kosher is to purchase only products that have a certifying mark from a kosher supervision agency. These symbols are ubiquitous, and can be found on just about any type of food that can possibly be kosher.

A kosher certification symbol is called a hechsher. Hechshers are symbols that represent agencies that conduct kosher supervision. A mashgiach is an expert trained in kosher law who inspects and supervises food production to ensure that it meets the proper standards. He will check all ingredients and processes to make sure that the food qualifies. If it does, the manufacturer will be allowed to place a hechsher on the product label. It is unlawful to place a hechsher on a label without approval, since it is a trademarked logo owned by the particular certifying agency.

Each agency might have their own standards and leniencies. For this reason, it is important to choose only reliable, recognized hechshers.

Years ago, a simple letter K was often used to indicate that an item was kosher. However, a plain K cannot be trademarked, so there is nothing to prevent manufacturers from using it on their labels without any approval whatsoever. Therefore, today, a plain K no longer can be trusted as a kosher symbol.

The two most well known and respected kosher symbols are and . However, there are numerous other hechshers that are equally reliable. The hechshers available vary regionally.

1. 1. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Volume 3 http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2005/aprqtr/pdf/21cfr173.280.pdf
2. 2. Sally Clinton, What's In Your Cheese? http://www.natural-connection.com/resource/tnc_reference_library/cheese....
3. 3. Seasoned Products Made Without Porcine Enzymes, http://www.fritolay.com/your-health/seasoned-products-made-without-porci...
4. 4. It should also be noted that as a precaution, Jewish law additionally requires that the production of certain types of cheese be supervised by observant Jews in order for it to qualify as kosher.

"Leaven" on Passover

Matzah: from an old Passover HaggadahOn Passover, we are given an additional kosher law:

Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread. On the first day you shall remove leaven out of your houses, for if anyone eats what is leavened, from the first day until the seventh day, that person shall be cut off from Israel. (Exodus 12:15)

The word translated "leaven" or "leavened bread" is the Hebrew word chametz (חמץ). It does not actually mean "leaven" or "leavening" in the sense that we use the word today. Chametz is any grain product in which fermentation has occurred. It is related to the word chamutz (חמוץ), which means "sour."

In ancient times as well as in breads such as sourdough today, bread could be leavened just by allowing the dough to sit for a period of time until enough of the yeast in the air works its way into it and begins to ferment the dough.

Keep in mind that the Hebrew word chametz does not imply anything about the fluffiness or softness of the food, but only that it has been fermented. This is one area where our English language leads us astray.

The Five Grains

Chametz is limited to grain products, which is borne out by the fact that wine and wine vinegar are present and consumed during Passover in the Gospels. This makes sense, because it was bread making at the time of the exodus that led to the prohibition of chametz. Bread, as it was known to the ancient Israelites, could be made of five types of grain.

The Hebrew terms for the five grains1 are:

• chittah (חיטים): commonly translated "wheat"
• se'orim (שעורים): commonly translated "barley"
• kusmin (כוסמין), biblically "kussemet" (כסמת): commonly translated "emmer" or "spelt"
• shibbolet shu'al (שיבולת שועל): commonly translated "oats"
• shifon (שיפון): commonly translated "rye"

There are multiple opinions as to the exact identity of some of these grains. The Orthodox Union offers this explanation:

Chittim is wheat, which by Talmudic times consisted of two primary species, durum and common wheat. Se'orim refers to 6- and 4-rowed barley, two of the three forms grown in ancient Israel. Kusmin, called kusemet in the Torah and associated with food for the poor (Ezekiel 4:9), is probably emmer. Shibbolet shi'al may be 2-rowed barley and, indeed, it and se'orim were considered as one species in regards to kilayim (prohibition of mixing heterogeneous plants in one field) (Mishnah Kilayim 1:1). Shippon refers to either spelt, a species of wheat, or einkorn, the granddaddy of all modern wheat. Since shippon and kusmin were considered as one species in regards to kilayim (1:1), spelt is the more likelier choice as it is a closer relative to emmer. Oats and rye, which shibbolet shi'al and shippon are commonly mistranslated, neither grew in Israel at that time nor are closely related to the various species of wheat.2

Since other products that we conventionally think of as grain (such as rice or corn) would not have been accessible to ancient Israelites, they do not constitute chametz.

One might ask: is that really reasonable to limit chametz to those five grains? After all, there are other biologically similar cereal grains in which fermentation can also occur, such as corn (maize) or rice. Ashkenazi custom places those grains, along with legumes and certain other foods, in a different category called kitniyos. Certain Jewish communities choose to avoid kitniyos in addition to chametz because they could be easily confused, but not because of an explicit commandment in the Torah. But is that classification correct, or should maize and rice be prohibited as a matter of Torah law?

As previously noted, our translations are misleading with the term chametz, filling in its literal meaning ("something fermented") with a more interpretive translation: "leavened bread." In reality, there are numerous things that could be fermented in addition to grain products. We are already conceding to Jewish tradition by accepting that chametz is limited to grains (although rightfully so, since the making of bread was the factor that led to the prohibition). It would not be fair to accept the traditional reading of chametz as grain, but then to use a different definition of what grain is.

While maize and rice are biologically similar to the five grains, biological taxonomy is markedly different from biblical taxonomy, as we have seen elsewhere in our kosher study. For example, the Bible classifies bats along with birds and whales along with fish. That is because the major biblical taxonomic classification is the domain in which the creature lives: those that teem in the water, those that crawl on the earth, beasts of the field, and birds of the air. It is reasonable to apply this also to plants. This suggests that a biological classification may not be useful from a biblical perspective; a classification based on native land is more in keeping with biblical thought.

For example, compare Egypt's choice foods: "the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the onions, and the garlic" (Numbers 11:5) with those of Israel: "a land of wheat and barley, of [grape] vines and fig trees and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and [date] honey" (Deuteronomy 8:8). Notice how those of Egypt all grow directly on the ground (downwards), whereas those of Israel, aside from grain, all grow in trees (upwards).

(One might mention that grapes don't grow on trees, they grow on vines. But there is another example of Biblical taxonomy at odds with biological taxonomy. Biblically, a grape vine is a tree as we can see from verses such as Judges 9:12, Ezekiel 15:2-6, and others.)

The Sages considered wheat and barley to be the primary grain species and the other three as subspecies. This would explain why the Scriptures so frequently mention wheat and barley, but so rarely mention the other three in any context, despite the fact that they did exist and were in use at the time.

Nonetheless, look at how many different terms for grain are used in the Torah, specifically in connection with Egypt:

The flax and the barley (se'orah, שערה) were struck down, for the barley was in the ear and the flax was in bud. But the wheat (chittah, חטה) and the emmer (kussemet, כסמת) were not struck down, for they are late in coming up. (Exodus 9:31-32)

And he fell asleep and dreamed a second time. And behold, seven ears of grain (shibbolet, שבלת), plump and good, were growing on one stalk. (Genesis 41:5)

Fermentation of Grain

Fermentation occurs whenever flour or grain comes in contact with water. It may or may not be perceptible in the form of fluffiness or taste. Fermentation is the process of yeast (which occurs naturally in the air) breaking the sugars into alcohol, releasing carbon dioxide. Since fermentation begins immediately, it is impossible to have bread in which absolutely no "leavening" has occurred (outside a laboratory). For all practical purposes, fermentation ends when the product is cooked. Thus, for bread to be "unleavened," there has to be a defined maximum amount of time between when the flour comes in contact with water and when baking is completed. The Bible does not tell us what that time is.

Jewish law defines chametz as any of the above-listed grain products that has been combined with water and has been allowed to sit longer than eighteen minutes before being fully cooked. This means that many foods you might not expect can be considered chametz, such as noodles, crackers, or cookies as well as both fluffy loaves of bread and flatbreads such as pitas or tortillas. Ultimately, that means any grain product in your house other than kosher-for-Passover matzah.

Grain vinegar is also a fermented grain product, and so it is forbidden. Grain vinegar is present in many foods, such as ketchup and mustard. If the label does not indicate what type of vinegar it is, it is probably from grain. Other vinegars such as from cider or wine are not prohibited, as long as they are not combined with grain vinegar as well.

Many alcohols are also produced from fermenting grain. Beer and many spirits are thus prohibited. Alcohols that are not made from grain are not prohibited, such as wine from grapes. Grain alcohol is present in many food flavorings, such as vanilla extract. It is probably present in trace amounts in any food that lists "natural flavors" on the label.

Other leavening agents (such as baking soda) that release gases through a non-biological process are not prohibited. So you wouldn't need to remove a canister of baking soda, although you probably shouldn't use it during Passover in a way that would involve combining flour with water.

Other types of microbiological processes are not prohibited, so foods with bacterial cultures such as yogurt or natural sauerkraut can be kept.

Most people remove flour before Passover as well. Flour is not chametz exactly, but if by accident or negligence your flour comes in contact with moisture it will create chametz, which would be problematic. Removing flour also removes that possibility.

The safest way to know if something is kosher for Passover is if a reliable kosher for Passover certification appears on the label.

1. 1. Found in m.Challah 1:1.
2. 2. Gil Marks, Open Tent Policy. http://www.ou.org/shabbat/recipes/tent.htm

Conclusion

Bagels: sometimes they're kosherAs you can see, there is much more to learn from the Bible about kosher law than clean and unclean species. Commercial meats from clean species contain forbidden parts of the animal as well as blood, and may not have been killed in accordance with biblical standards. Animal products can crop up in the most unexpected places. Biblical sources point to cleansing dishes through a heating process. "You shall not boil a young goat in its mother's milk" is a deceptively narrow translation, and a simple linguistic examination can suggest a separation of meat and dairy. Thorough insect-checking of fruits and vegetables is an important part of kosher eating. On Passover, we must abstain not just from fluffy bread, but from most grain foods aside from matzah, including many foods that contain vinegar or flavorings.

Hopefully, this document has awakened you to more of the issues involved in keeping a biblical standard of kosher. There is much more that can be said about biblical kosher law. Perhaps this essay has helped contribute to your sense of respect for the definitions and interpretations that have arisen from the Jewish community as they have learned to keep the biblical law over thousands of years.

Biblical kosher practice does not have to be all or nothing. One can begin with a single step and move into more observance gradually. Every step counts. And yet, it is important to have a sense of the big picture and an understanding that keeping biblical kosher is beyond the avoidance of pork and shellfish.

This study was printed from http://biblicalkosher.alittlehebrew.com. Copyright © 2009 Aaron Eby. Permission is granted to distribute this printed version, as long as this message is included without alteration.